Turkish Jews
Türkiye Yahudileri
יהודים טורקים
Djudios Turkos
| Total population |
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| Ca. 150,000 to 200,000 |
| Regions with significant populations |
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| Languages |
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Biblical eraHistory
The ancient Israelites were known to have importedhoneybees from Turkey. A team of Israeli archeologists found 30 intact hives made of straw and unbaked clay, and evidence that there had been over 100-200 more, on the site of the joint Israelite-Canaanite city of Tel Rehov. According to some evidence, the bees were probably imported from Turkey after Turkish bees proved easier to handle than local bees, which had proved to be extremely aggressive.[3]
Roman and Byzantine rule
Sardis Synagogue was a section of a large bath-gymnasium complex, that was in use for about 450–500 years.
According to
Jewish scripture,
Noah's Arklanded on the top of
Mount Ararat, a mountain in the
Taurus range in the Republic of Turkey, near the modern borders
Armenia and
Iran.
[4] Flavius Josephus,
Jewish historian of the first century, notes Jewish origins for many of the cities in
Asia Minor, though much of his sourcing for these passages is traditional.
[5] New Testament mention of Jewish populations in
Anatolia is widespread: Iconium (now:
Konya) is said to have a
synagogue in
Acts 14:1, and
Ephesus is mentioned as having a synagogue in Acts 19:1 and in Paul's
Epistle to the Ephesians. The
Epistle to the Galatians is likewise directed at
an area of modern Turkey which once held an established Jewish population. Based on physical evidence, there has been a Jewish community in Asia Minor since the 4th century BCE, most notably in the city of
Sardis. The subsequent
Roman and
Byzantine Empires included sizable
Greek-speaking Jewish communities in their Anatolian domains which seem to have been relatively well-integrated and enjoyed certain legal immunities.
[citation needed] The size of the Jewish community was not greatly affected by the attempts of some
Byzantine emperors (most notably
Justinian) to
forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to
Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.
[6] The exact picture of the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule is still being researched by historians.
[7] Although there is some evidence of occasional hostility by the Byzantine populations and authorities, no systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in western Europe (
pogroms, the
stake,
mass expulsions, etc.) is believed to have occurred in Byzantium.
[8]
Ottoman era
The first
Jewish synagogue linked to
Ottoman rule is
Etz ha-Hayyim (
Hebrew:
עץ החיים Lit.Tree of Life) in
Bursa which passed to Ottoman authority in 1324. The synagogue is still in use, although the modern Jewish population of Bursa has shrunk to about 140 people.
[9]
The status of
Jewry in the
Ottoman Empire often hinged on the whims of the
Sultan. So, for example, while
Murad III ordered that the attitude of all non-Muslims should be one of "humility and abjection" and should not "live near Mosques or tall buildings" or own slaves, others were more tolerant.
[10]
The first major event in
Jewish history under Turkish rule took place after the Empire gained control over
Constantinople. After
Sultan Mehmed II's
Conquest of Constantinople he found the city in a state of disarray. After suffering
many sieges,
a devastating conquest by
Catholic Crusaders in 1204 and even a case of the
Black Death in 1347,
[11] the city was a shade of its former glory. As Mehmed wanted the city as his new capital, he decreed the rebuilding of the city.
[12] And in order to revivify
Constantinople he ordered that
Muslims,
Christians and
Jews from all over his empire be resettled in the new capital.
[12] Within months most of the Empires
Romaniote Jews, from the
Balkans and
Anatolia, were concentrated in
Constantinople, where they made up 10% of the city's population.
[13]But at the same time the forced resettlement, though not intended as an
anti-Jewish measure, was perceived as an "expulsion" by the Jews.
[14] Despite this interpretation however, the Romaniotes would be the most influential community in the Empire for a few decades to come, until that position would be lost to a wave of
new Jewish arrivals.
A key moment in Judeo-Turkic relations occurred in 1492, when more than 150,000 Spanish Jews fled the
Spanish Inquisition, many to the Ottoman Empire. At that point in time,
Constantinople's population was a mere 70,000 due to the various sieges of the city during the
Crusades and the so-called
Black Death of the 14th century, so this historical event was also significant for repopulation of the city. These
Sephardic Jews settled in Constantinople as well as
Salonika.
The Sultan is said to have exclaimed thus at the Spanish monarch's lack of wisdom: "
Ye call Ferdinand a wise king he who makes his land poor and ours rich!".
[17][18] The Jews satisfied various needs in the Ottoman Empire: the
Muslim Turks were largely uninterested in business enterprises and accordingly left commercial occupations to members of minority religions. They also distrusted the Christian subjects whose countries had only recently been conquered by the Ottomans and therefore it was natural to prefer Jewish subjects to which this consideration did not apply.
[19]
The
Spanish Jews were allowed to settle in the wealthier cities of the empire, especially in the
European provinces (cities such as:
Istanbul,
Sarajevo,
Salonica,
Adrianople and
Nicopolis), Western and Northern
Anatolia (
Bursa,
Aydın,
Tokat and
Amasya), but also in the
Mediterranean coastal regions (for example:
Jerusalem,
Safed,
Damascus,
Egypt).
Izmir was not settled by Spanish Jews until later. The Jewish population at Jerusalem increased from 70 families in 1488 to 1,500 at the beginning of the 16th century. That of Safed increased from 300 to 2,000 families and almost surpassed Jerusalem in importance. Damascus had a Sephardic congregation of 500 families. Istanbul had a Jewish community of 30,000 individuals with
44 synagogues. Bayezid allowed the Jews to live on the banks of the
Golden Horn. Egypt, especially
Cairo, received a large number of the exiles, who soon out-numbered the
native Jews. Gradually, the chief center of the
Sephardic Jews became
Salonica, where the Spanish Jews soon outnumbered their co-religionists of other nationalities and, at one time, the original native inhabitants.
Although the status of the Jews in the
Ottoman Empiremay have often been exaggerated,
[20] it is undeniable that the tolerance was enjoyed. Under the
millet system they were organized as a community on the basis of religion, alongside the other millets (
e.g. Orthodox millet,
Armenian millet, etc.). In the framework of the millet they had a considerable amount of administrative
autonomy and were represented by the
Hakham Bashi, the Chief Rabbi. There were no restrictions in the professions Jews could practice analogous to those common in Western Christian countries.
[21] There were restrictions in the areas Jews could live or work, but such restrictions were imposed on Ottoman subjects of other religions as well.
[19] Like all non-Muslims, Jews had to pay the
harac ("head tax") and faced other restrictions in clothing, horse riding, army service etc., but they could occasionally be waived or circumvented.
[22]
Jews who reached high positions in the Ottoman court and administration include
Mehmed II's minister of Finance ("defterdar") Hekim Yakup Pasa, his
Portuguese physician
Moses Hamon,
Murad II's physician Ishak Pasha and Abraham de Castro, the master of the mint in Egypt.
During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the
millets, the apogee of Jewish influence could arguable be the appointment of
Joseph Nasi to
Sanjak-bey (
governor, a rank usually only bestowed upon Muslims) of the island of
Naxos.
[23] Also in the first half of the 17th century the Jews were distinct in winning
Tax farms, Haim Gerber describes it as:
"My impression is that no pressure existed, that it was merely performαnce that counted."[24]
Friction between Jews and Turks was less common than in the Arab territories. Some examples: During
Murad IV (1623–40) the Jews of Jerusalem were persecuted by an
Arab who had purchased the governorship of that city from the governor of the province.
[citation needed] In 1660, under
Mehmet IV(1649–1687),
Safat was destroyed by the Arabs
[citation needed]. In 1678, Mehmet IV ordered the banishment of the Jews of
Yemen to the
Mawza Desert[citation needed], an event which remains in the collective memory of Yemeni Jews as a great tragedy.
[25]
An additional problem was the
lack of unity among the Jews themselves. They had come to the Ottoman Empire from many lands, bringing with them their own customs and opinions, to which they clung tenaciously, and had founded separate congregations. Another tremendous upheaval was caused when
Sabbatai Zevi proclaimed to be the Messiah. He was eventually caught by the Ottoman authorities and when given the choice between death and conversion, he opted for the latter. His remaining disciples converted to Islam too. Their descendants are today known as
Donmeh.
The history of the
Jews in Turkey in the eighteenth and nineteenth century is principally a chronicle of decline in influence and power, they lost their influential positions in trade mainly to the
Greeks, who were able to "capitalize on their religio-cultural ties with the West and their trading diaspora".
[24] An exception to this theme is that of
Daniel de Fonseca, who was chief court physician and played a certain political role. He is mentioned by
Voltaire, who speaks of him as an acquaintance whom he esteemed highly. Fonseca was involved in negotiations with
Charles XII of Sweden.
As mentioned before, the overwhelming majority of the Ottoman Jews lived in the
European-provincesof the Empire. As the
Empire declined however, the Jews of these region found themselves under Christian rule. The
Bosnian Jews for example came under
Austro-Hungarian rule after the occupation of the region in 1878, the independence of
Greece,
Bulgaria and
Serbia further lowered the number of Jews within the borders of the Ottoman Empire.
Turkish Republic
The troubled history of
Turkey during the 20th century and the process of transforming the old Ottoman empire into a modern
Western nation state after 1923 however, had a negative effect on the size of all remaining minorities, including the
Jews.
After 1933, a new law put into effect in
Nazi Germany for mandatory retirement of officials from non-Aryan race. Thus, the law required all the Jewish scientists in Germany to be fired. Unemployed scientists led by
Albert Einstein formed an association in Switzerland. Professor Schwartz, the general secretary of the association, met with the Turkish Minister of Education in order to provide jobs for 34 Jewish scientists in Turkish universities especially in
Istanbul University.
[28]
However, the planned deportation of Jews from
East Thrace and the associated anti-Jewish pogrom in 1934 was one of the events that caused insecurity among the Turkish Jews.
[29]
The effect of the 1942
Varlık Vergisi ("Wealth Tax") was the greatest on non-Muslims – who still controlled the largest portion of the
young republic's wealth – even though in principle it was directed against all wealthy Turkish citizens. The "wealth tax" is still remembered as the "catastrophe" among the non-Muslims of Turkey and it had probably the most detrimental effect on the numbers of the Jewish community. Many people unable to pay the taxes were sent to labor camps and about 30,000 Jews emigrated.
[30] The tax was seen as a
racist attempt to diminish the economic power of minorities in Turkey.
[31]
World War II
Even though
Turkey remained neutral during
World War II (until its symbolic declaration of war on
Nazi Germany on 23 February 1945) and officially forbade granting
visas to
German Jews, individual
Turkish diplomats (such as
Necdet Kent,
Namık Kemal Yolga,
Selahattin Ülkümen and
Behiç Erkin) did work hard to save Jews from the
Holocaust.
[34] Stanford Shaw claims that Turkey saved 100,000
[35], while another historian
Rifat Bali claims Turkey saved 15,000 and another historian
Tuvia Friling, an Israeli expert on the Balkans and the Middle East 20,000.
[36]. In his book Arnold Reisman, accepts a figure of 35,000 comprising 15,000 Turkish Jews from France, and approximately 20,000 Jews from Eastern Europe.
[37].
On the other hand, Turkey has been implicated
[according to whom?] in the
Struma disaster, due to its refusal to allow the Jewish refugees on board to disembark in Turkish territory
[38]
Democratic Party Period
On the night of 6/7 September 1955, the
Istanbul Pogrom was unleashed. Although primarily aimed at the city's
Greek population, the
Jewish and
Armenian communities of
Istanbul were also targeted to a degree. The damage caused was mainly material (a complete total of over than 4,000 shops and 1,000 houses – belonging to Greeks, Armenians and Jews – were destroyed) it deeply shocked minorities throughout the country, and 10,000 Jews subsequently fled Turkey.
[39][40]
Today
Turkish Jews are still legally represented by the
Hakham Bashi, the Chief Rabbi. Rabbi
Ishak Haleva, is assisted by a religious Council made up of a
Rosh Bet Din and three
Hahamim. Thirty-five Lay Counselors look after the secular affairs of the Community and an Executive Committee of fourteen, the president of which must be elected from among the Lay Counselors, runs the daily affairs.
Antisemitism
Antisemitic sentiment is common in Turkey
[citation needed], though violence is rare. Most antisemitism is manifested in books, newspapers, and magazines, with extremely antisemitic propaganda appearing in Islamist newspapers
[citation needed]. According to researchers at
Tel Aviv University, antisemitism in the media and books was creating a situation in which young, educated Turks formed negative opinions against Jews and Israel.
[44] However, violence against Jews has also occurred. In 2003, an Istanbul dentist was murdered in his clinic by a man who admitted that he committed the crime out of antisemitic sentiment. In 2009, a number of Jewish students suffered verbal abuse and physical attacks, and a Jewish soldier in the
Turkish Army was assaulted.
Traditionally,
aliyah from Turkey to Israel has been low, as despite the antisemitism and occasional violence, Jews felt generally safe in Turkey. Between 1948 and 2010, a total of 62,837 Turkish Jews emigrated to Israel. However, in the aftermath of the
Gaza flotilla raid, antisemitism in Turkey increased and became more open, and it was reported that the community was also subjected to economic pressure, with Muslims refusing to buy from Jewish businesses, especially textile businesses. As a result, the number of Turkish Jews emigrating to Israel increased.
[2] By September 2010, the Jewish population of Turkey had dropped to 17,000, from an original population of 23,000
[41]Today, the Jewish community is feeling increasingly threatened by extremists. In 2012, it was reported that the number of Jews expressing interest in moving to Israel rose by 100%, a large number of Jewish business owners were seeking to relocate their businesses to Israel, and that hundreds were moving every year.
[49
Turkey and Israel
Turkey is among the first countries to formally recognize the State of
Israel.
[50] Turkey and Israel have closely cooperated militarily and economically. Israel and Turkey have signed a multi-billion dollar project to build a series of pipelines from Turkey to Israel to supply gas, oil and other essentials to Israel.
[51] In 2003 the
Arkadas Association was established in Israel. The
Arkadas Association is a
Turkish-
Jewish cultural center in
Yehud, aiming to preserve the Turkish-Jewish heritage and promote friendship (
Arkadaş being the
Turkish word for
Friend) between the
Israeli and
Turkish people. In 2004, the
Ülkümen-Sarfati Society was established by
Jews and
Turks in Germany. The society, named after
Selahattin Ülkümen and
Yitzhak Sarfati, aims to promote intercultural and interreligious dialogue and wants to inform the public of the centuries of peaceful coexistence between Turks and Jews.
[52][53]
Literature
The flourishing period of Jewish literature in Turkey was in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
[citation needed] after the arrival of the Spanish exiles, though there had been Jewish intellectuals before this period too.
[citation needed] Printing-presses and Talmud schools were established, and an active correspondence with Europe was maintained.
[citation needed]
Notable Turkish Jews
- Ishak Alaton, co-founder of Alarko Holding
- Can Bonomo, Musician who represented Turkey at the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 in Baku, Azerbaijan
- Abraham Salomon Camondo, Ottoman-Italian financier and philanthropist and the patriarch of the Camondo family
- Moses Capsali, first Hakham Bashi (Turkish: Chief Rabbi) of the Ottoman Empire
- Uzeyir Garih, co-founder of Alarko Holding
- Umut Güzelses, Turkish-Israeli soccer player
- Ishak Haleva, current Hakham Bashi of Turkey
- Barzillai ben Baruch Jabez, talmudist
- Emanuel Karasu, Salonica born Ottoman statesman
- Dario Moreno, Izmir born musician
- Joseph Nasi, Portuguese Ottoman Trader and the first non-Muslim to be appointed to the rank ofSanjak-bey (governor)
- Joseph Taitazak, Spanish-born Ottoman Rabbi and Kabbalist
- Sabbatai Zevi
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